How Many Indigenous Languages Are in Canada?

How Many Indigenous Languages Are in Canada? And Why Is It So Hard to Agree on a Number?

There are somewhere between 60 and 90 Indigenous languages spoken and signed across Canada today, depending on which source you ask. Mention an Indigenous language in conversation, and some familiar names may come up: Cree, Inuktitut, or Ojibwe, to name a few. While these are indeed Indigenous languages with a big presence across the country, they form just the tip of the proverbial iceberg when it comes to the sheer linguistic diversity of what’s out there. These languages continue to be spoken and signed across 12 unrelated language families over the vast lands now known as Canada.

Estimates on the exact number vary depending on who you ask:

Some of these language varieties are closely related to one another, sharing similar histories, words, and grammatical structures. Consider the aforementioned Ojibwe and Cree languages, which form part of the larger Algonquian language family, and share many grammatical features, words, and sounds. Other languages, such as Haida or Ktunaxa (Kootenay), stand completely apart and are not known to have any living relatives.

Through linguistic analyses, census and historical records, and the invaluable accounts of Indigenous Knowledge Holders, there is no shortage of information available regarding what languages are spoken, where they come from, and roughly how many people speak them. A more difficult task, and one which has remained largely unaccomplished, is definitively knowing just how many there are.

Indigenous Languages or Dialects? Why the Distinction Is So Difficult

Part of this difficulty comes from deciding how much detail should be included when counting. Cree, Ojibwe, and Inuktitut are languages, but they’re not just languages. They can be thought of as clusters of closely related language varieties sharing many similar words and structures.

As an example, Îyiyû Ayimûn (Northeastern Cree), spoken in northern communities of Eeyou Ischee (James Bay) in Québec, can be largely understood by neighbours speaking Înû Ayimûn (Southern Inland Cree). On the other hand, Nēhiyawēwin (Plains Cree), spoken across Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta, is considered largely unintelligible, with a substantially different grammar, pronunciation, and lexicon. They are all Cree, but they aren’t just Cree, and there is more nuance to the picture.

Distributions like these can also be seen with Salish, Déné, and Siouan languages, such as Nakoda, Lakota, and Dakota. Inside these groups, language varieties next to each other often have the most in common, and share less with those geographically farther away. Sometimes speakers understand their neighbours with ease, while in other cases, communication requires significant learning. Knowing how close these varieties are to each other is an essential piece to deciding whether or not they can be counted separately, but to do so, we need to first take a step back and look at an even bigger picture.

What Counts as a Language vs. a Dialect?

It is important to note that there is generally no consensus on what distinguishes a language from a dialect, which are the terms typically used in work of this nature. It is for this reason, at least in part, that estimates on the number of Indigenous languages in Canada vary significantly.

We run into issues when trying to classify something as a language or dialect because these are discrete categories that we superimpose over complex and interconnected phenomena in an attempt to understand and define them. Many conventional perspectives view the distribution of languages through a European lens of nation states and uniform kingdoms with clearly defined legal boundaries: French on this side of the border, Spanish on that side. But the reality for languages and those who speak them, for Europeans too, is more nuanced: the world over, people move, marry into other groups, invade, trade, and travel. Borders are not as solid and definitive as we often give them credit for.

Mutual Intelligibility: A Common (Imperfect) Test

A common way of thinking about languages and dialects is through the notion of mutual intelligibility, or the extent to which one speaker can understand another. If, for example, two languages are 50% mutually intelligible, speakers from each language would be able to understand roughly half of what the other was saying.

A commonly held belief is that varieties more or less intelligible with one another should be considered dialects, while unintelligible varieties would be separate languages. And generally speaking, this can be observed readily: English speakers from Toronto will likely understand most of what English speakers from Liverpool are saying, but not someone from Tokyo speaking Japanese, at least without prior exposure, training, or dedicated translation services. Undeniable as this might be, it doesn’t tell the entire story.

Languages such as Mandarin and Cantonese are commonly referred to as Chinese dialects, though they come from different branches of the same linguistic family tree and are demonstrably not mutually intelligible (Mair, 2009). Conversely, Turkish and Azerbaijani, both official languages of their respective countries, are considered separate languages but are mutually intelligible enough to make conversing between the two possible (Akpınar, 2024).

In Canada, the previously mentioned Îyiyû Ayimûn and Înû Ayimûn are classified by community members and outsiders alike as Eastern Cree dialects, despite being grammatically closer to Innu and Naskapi, conventionally classified as separate languages (Cenerini et al., 2017).

There are thus more things that influence common classifications of languages or dialects than simple mutual intelligibility. Speakers of Îyiyû Ayimûn and Înû Ayimûn view themselves, their history, and their culture as Cree, regardless of any comparative structural linguistic findings. Social, political, and historical factors cannot be ignored, and are indeed often considered when language varieties are grouped together.

A cliché attributed to several authors within the field of dialectology, the study of dialects, states: “A language is a dialect with an army and navy” (Van Rooy, 2020).

Endangered Indigenous Languages in Canada: Loss and Revival

An additional key point to consider is that the number of Indigenous languages in Canada has changed and will continue to change over time. Since first contact between Indigenous Peoples and Europeans, systematic efforts by missionaries and the Canadian government to erase Indigenous languages, including through residential schools and forced relocation, have directly resulted in the loss of dozens of languages.

And this legacy of erasure continues to this day. By some estimates, 75% of Indigenous languages currently spoken in Canada are considered endangered, with only a handful of elderly fluent speakers remaining (Friedrich, 2021), and about half of all Indigenous languages have fewer than 500 known speakers and learners (Rice, 2020).

The results of a continuing legacy of colonialism, including the interruption of intergenerational transmission, have meant that many parents are unable to pass their language or languages on to their children in the home, which is the most important setting for language learning at a young age (FPCC, 2018). At the same time, internet-based services such as social media, gaming, and streaming platforms have made languages like English and French increasingly present and necessary, even in places where Indigenous languages continue to be spoken across generations. In these cases, a shift away from Indigenous language use can be insidious and difficult to see.

Despite the ongoing loss of many Indigenous languages, there are also stories of success, whereby languages are reawakening and joining the Indigenous languages in Canada currently spoken. Pentl’ach, a Salishan language spoken on Vancouver Island by the Qualicum First Nation, was considered “sleeping” following the death of the last fluent speaker in 1940. In 2017, linguists and community members began compiling archival records to develop a functioning writing system and a base of second-language learners, resulting in the language being recognized as British Columbia’s 35th First Nations language in 2023 (FPCC, 2023).

Continuing the Search

As this article ideally demonstrates, people continue to disagree on how many Indigenous languages are spoken in Canada, in part because of differing opinions on how to define a language versus a dialect, because linguistic classifications and community histories don’t necessarily align, and because the number of languages changes over time.

Knowing how many languages are spoken, where they are spoken, and how many people speak them is critical in an intangible sense, as it helps us better understand the rich linguistic tapestry and history of Canada, and the many communities that live and grow across these lands. In a concrete sense, these languages are essential to the health and vitality of communities who speak them (OCIL, 2025), and knowing how many languages are spoken helps agencies at regional, provincial, and federal levels allocate funding and resources that support their vitality.

Ultimately, obtaining a definitive number of Indigenous languages is outside the scope of this article, and because so much that goes into this work involves subjective interpretation, finding something that everyone agrees upon may remain out of reach. However, in the pursuit of learning about the diverse languages spoken in Canada, we can find new ways to support linguistic diversity, and give voices to the speakers and learners who call these lands home.

Frequently Asked Questions

How many Indigenous languages are spoken in Canada?

Estimates range from about 60 to 90, depending on the source and how languages versus dialects are counted. Statistics Canada and the Canadian Encyclopedia put the number at around 70, while UNESCO’s estimate is as high as 87.

What’s the difference between a language and a dialect?

There’s no universal agreement on this distinction. A common test is mutual intelligibility, whether speakers of two varieties can understand each other, but social, political, and historical factors often matter just as much as linguistic structure.

Are Cree, Ojibwe, and Inuktitut single languages or language groups?

They’re better understood as clusters of closely related language varieties rather than single, uniform languages. Some varieties within these groups are mutually intelligible; others are not.

Which Indigenous languages in Canada are considered endangered?

By some estimates, roughly 75% of Indigenous languages currently spoken in Canada are considered endangered, and about half have fewer than 500 known speakers and learners.

References

Akpınar, A. (2024, December 14). How different are the Azeri and Turkish languages? Dem Turkish Center. https://demturkishbookstore.com/blogs/news/difference-azeri-turkish-language

Assembly of First Nations. (2026). Languages. https://afn.ca/community-services/languages/

Cenerini, C., Junker, M.O., & Rosen, N. (2017). Mapping dialectal variation using the Algonquian Linguistic Atlas. Language Documentation & Conservation, 11, 305–324. https://hdl.handle.net/10125/24738

First Peoples’ Cultural Council. (2018, March). Language in the home (Fact Sheet 9). https://fpcc.ca/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/Fact_Sheet__9_Language_in_the_Home.pdf

First Peoples’ Cultural Council (FPCC). (2023, November 29). Qualicum First Nation celebrated for the official reawakening of their pentl’ach language [News release]. https://fpcc.ca/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/FPCC-News-Release-pentlach-Language-Announcement-29.11.2023-4.pdf

Friedrich, D. (2021, February 4). Controversies around endangered Indigenous languages in the Canadian Arctic (Part I). The Arctic Institute. https://www.thearcticinstitute.org/controversies-endangered-indigenous-languages-canadian-arctic-part-i/

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Moseley, C. (Ed.). (2010). Atlas of the world’s languages in danger (3rd ed.). UNESCO Publishing.

Office of the Commissioner of Indigenous Languages (OCIL). (2025). The value of Indigenous language vitality: An annotated bibliography. https://commissionforindigenouslanguages.ca/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/VOL-Annotated-Bibliography-1-v4.pdf

Office of the Commissioner of Indigenous Languages (OCIL). (2026). Language Directory. https://commissionforindigenouslanguages.ca/language-directory-2/

Rice, K. (2020, April 17). Indigenous language revitalization in Canada. The Canadian Encyclopedia. https://thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/indigenous-language-revitalization-in-canada

Sexsmith, G. (2025, April 9). Introducing: Discovery Language. Canadian Geographic. https://canadiangeographic.ca/articles/introducing-discovery-language/

Statistics Canada. (2023, March 29). Indigenous languages across Canada. https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/as-sa/98-200-x/2021012/98-200-x2021012-eng.cfm

Van Rooy, R. (2020). Language or dialect? The history of a conceptual pair. Oxford University Press.

Walker, N. (2017, December 15). Mapping Indigenous languages in Canada. Canadian Geographic. https://canadiangeographic.ca/articles/mapping-indigenous-languages-in-canada/